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Compare international jurisdictions side by side.
Compare company structures, tax and accounting, business presence, international mobility and the services available through Coutts Consultants — in one clear comparison.
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United Kingdom
Ireland
United Arab Emirates
At a glance
Key facts across your selected jurisdictions.
| Field | United Kingdom | Ireland | United Arab Emirates |
|---|---|---|---|
| Region | Europe | Europe | Middle East |
| Currency | GBP — Pound Sterling | EUR — Euro | AED — UAE Dirham |
| Corporate tax | 19% small-profits rate; 25% main rate | 12.5% trading income; 25% non-trading income | 0% to AED375k; 9% above |
| VAT / GST | VAT 20% standard rate | VAT 23% standard rate | VAT 5% |
| Common business vehicle | Private company limited by shares (Ltd) | Private company limited by shares (LTD) | LLC / free-zone company |
| Foreign ownership | 100% foreign ownership generally permitted | 100% foreign ownership generally permitted | 100% foreign ownership widely available |
| Local director | Not required | EEA-resident director or statutory alternative | Generally not required for many structures |
| Business language(s) | English | English; Irish | Arabic; English widely used in business |
| Coutts Consultants services | 47 available | 30 available | 62 available |
United Kingdom: information reviewed September 2026 · Ireland: information reviewed September 2026 · United Arab Emirates: information reviewed September 2026
Explore the detail
Compare key areas in depth. Select a section to view the full comparison.
| Field | United Kingdom | Ireland | United Arab Emirates |
|---|---|---|---|
| Common business vehicle | Private company limited by shares (Ltd) Private company limited by shares (Ltd). The precise common entity treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Kingdom. | Private company limited by shares (LTD) Private company limited by shares (LTD). The precise common entity treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in Ireland. | LLC / free-zone company Vehicle depends on emirate, authority and activity. |
| Foreign ownership | 100% foreign ownership generally permitted 100% foreign ownership generally permitted. The precise foreign ownership treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Kingdom. | 100% foreign ownership generally permitted 100% foreign ownership generally permitted. The precise foreign ownership treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in Ireland. | 100% foreign ownership widely available 100% foreign ownership widely available. The precise foreign ownership treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Minimum shareholders | 1 A UK private company limited by shares can be formed with one shareholder, who may also be a director. | 1 1. The precise minimum shareholders treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in Ireland. | Varies by structure Varies by structure. The precise minimum shareholders treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Minimum directors | 1 A UK private limited company must have at least one director, and at least one director must be an individual. | 1 for an LTD A private company limited by shares (LTD) may have one director; other Irish company types generally require at least two. | Varies by structure Varies by structure. The precise minimum directors treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Local director requirement | Not required Directors do not have to live in the UK. The company must, however, maintain an appropriate registered office in the UK jurisdiction in which it is registered. | EEA-resident director or statutory alternative An Irish company generally needs at least one EEA-resident director. Statutory alternatives include the prescribed bond or a certificate confirming a real and continuous link with economic activity in Ireland. | Generally not required for many structures Generally not required for many structures. The precise local director treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Registered office | UK registered office required A UK company must maintain an appropriate physical registered office address in its jurisdiction of registration. | Irish registered office required Every Irish company must maintain a physical registered office in the State; an approved Registration Office Agent may be used. | Required Required. The precise registered office treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Company secretary | Not required for private company A private limited company does not need a company secretary unless its articles require one. | Required Every Irish company must have a secretary. A sole director of an LTD cannot also act as that company's secretary. | Varies by structure Varies by structure. The precise company secretary treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Minimum capital | No general minimum for a private company No general minimum for a private company. The precise minimum capital treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Kingdom. | No general minimum for an LTD No general minimum for an LTD. The precise minimum capital treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in Ireland. | Varies by structure Varies by structure. The precise minimum capital treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Registration authority | Companies House | Companies Registration Office (CRO) | Relevant emirate economic department or free-zone authority |
| Field | United Kingdom | Ireland | United Arab Emirates |
|---|---|---|---|
| Corporate tax | 19% small-profits rate; 25% main rate For 2026, 19% applies to qualifying profits up to £50,000 and 25% above £250,000, with marginal relief between; thresholds can be reduced by associated companies. | 12.5% trading income; 25% non-trading income Revenue states 12.5% for trading income and 25% for non-trading income and excepted trades; other regimes can apply to particular groups/income. | 0% to AED375k; 9% above The general UAE corporate-tax rates are 0% on taxable income up to AED 375,000 and 9% above; qualifying free-zone income and other special regimes require separate analysis. |
| VAT / GST | VAT 20% standard rate The standard VAT rate is 20%; reduced, zero and exempt treatment applies to specified supplies. | VAT 23% standard rate The standard VAT rate is 23% from 1 January 2026; reduced and zero rates apply to specified supplies. | VAT 5% The general VAT rate is 5%; zero-rated and exempt supplies are subject to separate rules. |
| Accounting records | Accounting records required Companies must keep accounting records sufficient to show and explain transactions and disclose the company's financial position with reasonable accuracy. | Accounting records required Irish companies must keep adequate accounting records explaining their transactions and financial position. The records must support the company's statutory accounts and tax obligations. | Accounting records required Accounting records required. The precise accounts requirement treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Annual accounts | Annual accounts required Companies generally prepare annual accounts and file them with Companies House. Filing format and disclosure depend on company size and status. | Annual financial statements required Irish companies generally prepare annual financial statements and file accounts with the CRO with the annual return, subject to statutory filing exemptions and the special treatment of the first annual return. | Generally required Generally required. The precise annual accounts treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Audit | Audit exemption available Many qualifying small private companies can claim audit exemption. Companies outside the statutory exemption or otherwise required to be audited must appoint an auditor. | Audit exemption available Qualifying small and micro companies may claim statutory audit exemption if the Companies Act conditions and filing requirements are met. Companies outside the exemption require an audit. | Varies by authority and structure Varies by authority and structure. The precise audit requirement treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Annual filing | Accounts + confirmation statement Companies file annual accounts and a confirmation statement with Companies House, alongside their corporation-tax filing obligations to HMRC. | CRO annual return required A Form B1 annual return is required each year. The first annual return is due six months after incorporation; later returns follow the company's annual return date and applicable filing deadlines. | Varies by authority Varies by authority. The precise annual filing treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Tax residence | Incorporation or central management and control Incorporation or central management and control. The precise tax residence treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Kingdom. | Irish incorporation generally gives residence A company incorporated in Ireland on or after 1 January 2015 is generally Irish tax resident unless a double-tax treaty treats it as resident elsewhere. Foreign-incorporated companies can be resident where centrally managed and controlled in Ireland. | Incorporation and effective management/control rules apply UAE-incorporated juridical persons are within the corporate-tax residence framework; effective management and control can also be relevant. |
| Field | United Kingdom | Ireland | United Arab Emirates |
|---|---|---|---|
| Economic substance | Activity-dependent Activity-dependent. The precise economic substance treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Kingdom. | Activity-dependent Activity-dependent. The precise economic substance treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in Ireland. | Activity-dependent Activity-dependent. The precise economic substance treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Local management | Not required for incorporation Not required for incorporation. The precise local management treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Kingdom. | Relevant to tax and operations Relevant to tax and operations. The precise local management treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in Ireland. | Activity-dependent Activity-dependent. The precise local management treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Employment & payroll | Available Available. The precise employment payroll treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Kingdom. | Available Available. The precise employment payroll treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in Ireland. | Available Available. The precise employment payroll treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Field | United Kingdom | Ireland | United Arab Emirates |
|---|---|---|---|
| Entrepreneur routes | Innovator Founder route The Innovator Founder route is available to qualifying founders with an innovative, viable and scalable business endorsed by an approved endorsing body. | STEP for qualifying innovative founders The Start-up Entrepreneur Programme is available to qualifying non-EEA founders of innovative businesses. Applicants generally need at least EUR 50,000 in committed funding for the first founder. | Available Available. The precise entrepreneur routes treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Investor routes | No general investor visa The former Tier 1 Investor route is closed. Investment alone does not create a general UK residence entitlement; applicants must qualify under another immigration category. | IIP closed to new applications Ireland's Immigrant Investor Programme closed to new applications on 15 February 2023. Existing approved projects and applications continue under the applicable arrangements. | Available Available. The precise investor routes treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Employer-sponsored routes | Skilled Worker sponsorship available Licensed UK employers can sponsor qualifying workers under the Skilled Worker route and other eligible sponsored-work categories. | Employment permits available Non-EEA nationals generally need an employment permit or another immigration permission allowing work. Critical Skills and General Employment Permits are principal employer-linked routes. | Available Available. The precise sponsored work treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Remote worker routes | No dedicated digital-nomad visa The UK has no dedicated digital-nomad visa. Visitor rules permit only limited remote activity where it is incidental to the visit and does not amount to working in the UK labour market. | No dedicated digital-nomad visa Ireland does not operate a dedicated digital-nomad residence visa. A person's immigration permission must independently allow the proposed stay and work arrangements. | Available under qualifying programmes Available under qualifying programmes. The precise remote worker treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
| Permanent residence | Settlement available on qualifying routes Indefinite leave to remain is available on qualifying immigration routes after the applicable residence period and subject to route-specific conditions. | Long-term residence routes available Qualifying non-EEA residents can progress to longer-term status under the applicable immigration route. General Employment Permit holders may become eligible for long-term residence after the required period. | Available through qualifying routes Available through qualifying routes. The precise permanent residence treatment can depend on the chosen entity, activities and any regulated or sector-specific rules in United Arab Emirates. |
Coutts Consultants coverage
Explore the services currently available through Coutts Consultants in each selected jurisdiction.
United Kingdom
47 Services available
- Accounting, Tax & Employer Services6
- Banking & Financial Accounts8
- Company Formation & Corporate Services20
- Immigration & International Mobility4
- Intellectual Property3
- Legal & Corporate Advisory3
- Virtual Offices & Business Presence3
Ireland
30 Services available
- Accounting, Tax & Employer Services6
- Banking & Financial Accounts4
- Company Formation & Corporate Services8
- Immigration & International Mobility3
- Intellectual Property3
- Legal & Corporate Advisory3
- Virtual Offices & Business Presence3
United Arab Emirates
62 Services available
- Accounting, Tax & Employer Services11
- Banking & Financial Accounts11
- Business Advisory & International Expansion2
- Company Formation & Corporate Services13
- Immigration & International Mobility4
- Intellectual Property3
- International Trade & Market Entry5
- Legal & Corporate Advisory3
- Regulatory, Compliance & Licensing3
- Trusts, Foundations & Private Wealth4
- Virtual Offices & Business Presence3
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Important information: This comparison provides general information only. Requirements, rates and availability may change and may depend on the entity, activities, ownership and individual circumstances. Professional advice should be obtained where appropriate. Legal & Disclaimer